Overview of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in mineral processing industries and consideration of ionising radiation in life cycle assessment (LCA) – PART II. NORM impact assessment

This work provides an overview of issues related to naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in mineral processing industries across European countries, including the production of phosphoric acid and phosphate fertilisers, titanium dioxide (TiO₂), zircon and zirconium, and cement production industries. The study examines the impact of NORM from these industries on radiation exposure to workers, the public, and the environment. Relevant exposure scenarios are analysed, and effective radiation doses are evaluated. Potential treatments and final destinations of NORM residues are considered, with special attention to their possible valorisation and reuse. The aim of this work is to enhance overall knowledge of radiation protection in mineral processing industries, support the management of NORM-containing residues and waste, and assist regulatory decision-making. This is particularly important within the framework of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and the circular economy, which emphasizes optimal resource use, reduction of raw material extraction, waste minimization, and product life cycle extension. Current residues may be valorised as raw materials for future industrial applications. In such an economic strategy, the environmental impact of NORM and potential risks to the public can be significantly reduced—or even eliminated—at certain stages of the product life cycle. However, potential radiation exposure must always be considered. Therefore, further development of the LCA approach for NORM is important and requires substantial effort. An initial evaluation of the case of phosphoric acid production in the context of LCA is presented in this paper as an example of the broader development work needed in this area.