Overview of naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) in mineral processing industries and consideration of ionising radiation in life cycle assessment: Part I. NORM inventory

A systematic overview of NORM related issues in mineral processing industries as production of phosphoric acid, titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigment, phosphate fertilizers, cement and zircon and zirconium industry in different European countries is provided in this work. The current study tracks composition, content of Naturally Occurring Radionuclides (NOR) and their changes throughout the entire production cycle in these common and important industries: from raw materials, different production processes, end products, residues and wastes, and releases, with analysis of possible subsequent use of some by-products and residues in the concept of the circular economy.Such work improves the radiation protection knowledge in mineral processing industries, assists in the management of generated residues and wastes, and supports the regulatory decision-making process. A significant novelty is ensured through comprehensive comparison of the given mineral industries and respective NORM issues in various aspects – from legislative frameworks applied, NORM matrices with different NOR activity concentration and possible challenges with respect to recovery or disposal when they are above exemption or clearance levels of 1 kBq kg−1. This type of a systematic and comprehensive overview is especially important for European countries regarding the framework of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and the circular economy, where resources are maximally used, the involvement of new ones is reduced, waste is avoided, and the life cycle of products is extended. Additionally, here presented inventory work is expected to be useful for many countries worldwide that are at the beginning of their NORM-involving practice mapping.